Venetoclax Penetrates the Blood Brain Barrier: A Pharmacokinetic Analysis in Pediatric Leukemia Patients.

Infiltration of malignant cells into the central nervous system in hematological malignancies correlates with poor clinical outcomes. Investigations into the penetration of venetoclax into the central nervous system have been limited. We report venetoclax pharmacokinetics in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid samples from a Phase 1 study in pediatric patients with relapsed or refractory malignancies that demonstrate venetoclax ability to cross into the central nervous system. Venetoclax was detected in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples, with concentrations ranging from < 0.1 to 26 ng/mL (mean, 3.6 ng/mL) and a plasma:CSF ratio ranging from 44 to 1559 (mean, 385). Plasma:CSF ratios were comparable among patients with AML and ALL and no clear trend was observed in the ratios over the course of treatment. Moreover, improvement in central nervous system (CNS) involvement status was observed in patients who had measurable concentrations of venetoclax in the CSF. CNS resolution was observed for up to six months while on treatment. These findings highlight the potential role of venetoclax and provide the opportunity to further investigate its utility in improving clinical outcomes for patients with CNS complications.

Bioavailability Evaluation of Venetoclax Lower-Strength Tablets and Oral Powder Formulations to Establish Interchangeability with the 100 mg Tablet.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Venetoclax is an approved BCL-2 inhibitor, currently under evaluation in different hematological malignancies in adult and pediatric populations. Venetoclax is available as 10, 50, and 100 mg tablets. To provide an alternative to patients who find taking the commonly prescribed 100 mg tablet a challenge, the interchangeability of lower-strength tablets with the 100 mg tablet was investigated. Additionally, newly developed oral suspension powder formulations to facilitate dosing in pediatrics were evaluated. METHODS: Pharmacokinetic data from 80 healthy female participants from three phase I studies were utilized to evaluate the bioavailability of (1) 10 and 50 mg tablets relative to a 100 mg tablet; (2) 0.72 and 7.2% (drug to total weight) oral powder formulations relative to the 100 mg tablet; and (3) oral powder formulations administered using different vehicles (apple juice, apple sauce, and yogurt) relative to water under fed conditions. RESULTS: Bioavailability assessments at a 100 mg dose of venetoclax demonstrated bioequivalence across the 10, 50, and 100 mg tablet strengths. Oral powder formulations met the bioequivalence criteria (0.80-1.25) with respect to area under the concentration-time curve to time of the last measurable concentration (AUCt) and to infinite time (AUC∞) but exhibited a slightly lower maximum plasma concentration (Cmax). Exposure-response analyses were utilized to demonstrate that the lower Cmax observed with the powder formulations is not clinically meaningful. The delivery vehicles tested did not affect the bioavailability of venetoclax oral powder formulations. CONCLUSIONS: The smaller-sized tablets (10 and 50 mg) and the newly developed oral powder formulations of venetoclax can be used interchangeably with the 100 mg tablets to improve the patients' experience, while maintaining adequate exposure. CLINICAL TRIALS IDENTIFIERS: NCT01682616, 11 September 2012; NCT02005471, 9 December 2013; NCT02242942, 17 September 2014; NCT02203773, 30 July 2014; NCT02287233, 10 November 2014; NCT02993523, 15 December 2016; NCT03069352, 3 March 2017.

Venetoclax in combination with cytarabine with or without idarubicin in children with relapsed or refractory acute myeloid leukaemia: a phase 1, dose-escalation study.

BACKGROUND: Outcomes for children with relapsed or refractory acute myeloid leukaemia remain poor. The BCL-2 inhibitor, venetoclax, has shown promising activity in combination with hypomethylating agents and low-dose cytarabine in older adults for whom chemotherapy is not suitable with newly diagnosed acute myeloid leukaemia. We aimed to determine the safety and explore the activity of venetoclax in combination with standard and high-dose chemotherapy in paediatric patients with relapsed or refractory acute myeloid leukaemia. METHODS: We did a phase 1, dose-escalation study at three research hospitals in the USA. Eligible patients were aged 2-22 years with relapsed or refractory acute myeloid leukaemia or acute leukaemia of ambiguous lineage with adequate organ function and performance status. During dose escalation, participants received venetoclax orally once per day in continuous 28-day cycles at either 240 mg/m2 or 360 mg/m2, in combination with cytarabine received intravenously every 12 h at either 100 mg/m2 for 20 doses or 1000 mg/m2 for eight doses, with or without intravenous idarubicin (12 mg/m2) as a single dose, using a rolling-6 accrual strategy. The primary endpoint was the recommended phase 2 dose of venetoclax plus chemotherapy and the secondary endpoint was the proportion of patients treated at the recommended phase 2 dose who achieved complete remission or complete remission with incomplete haematological recovery. Analyses were done on patients who received combination therapy. The study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT03194932) and is now enrolling to address secondary and exploratory objectives. FINDINGS: Between July 1, 2017, and July 2, 2019, 38 patients were enrolled (aged 3-22 years; median 10 [IQR 7-13]), 36 of whom received combination therapy with dose escalation, with a median follow-up of 7·1 months (IQR 5·1-11·2). The recommended phase 2 dose of venetoclax was found to be 360 mg/m2 (maximum 600 mg) combined with cytarabine (1000 mg/m2 per dose for eight doses), with or without idarubicin (12 mg/m2 as a single dose). Overall responses were observed in 24 (69%) of the 35 patients who were evaluable after cycle 1. Among the 20 patients treated at the recommended phase 2 dose, 14 (70%, 95% CI 46-88) showed complete response with or without complete haematological recovery, and two (10%) showed partial response. The most common grade 3-4 adverse events were febrile neutropenia (22 [66%]), bloodstream infections (six [16%]), and invasive fungal infections (six [16%]). Treatment-related death occurred in one patient due to colitis and sepsis. INTERPRETATION: The safety and activity of venetoclax plus chemotherapy in paediatric patients with heavily relapsed and refractory acute myeloid leukaemia suggests that this combination should be tested in newly diagnosed paediatric patients with high-risk acute myeloid leukaemia. FUNDING: US National Institutes of Health, American Lebanese Syrian Associated Charities, AbbVie, and Gateway for Cancer Research.

An In Vitro Model of Hematotoxicity: Differentiation of Bone Marrow-Derived Stem/Progenitor Cells into Hematopoietic Lineages and Evaluation of Lineage-Specific Hematotoxicity.

Hematotoxicity is a significant issue for drug safety and can result from direct cytotoxicity toward circulating mature blood cell types as well as targeting of immature blood-forming stem cells/progenitor cells in the bone marrow. In vitro models for understanding and investigating the hematotoxicity potential of new test items/drugs are critical in early preclinical drug development. The traditional method, colony forming unit (CFU) assay, is commonly used and has been validated as a method for hematotoxicity screening. The CFU assay has multiple limitations for its application in investigative work. In this paper, we describe a detailed protocol for a liquid-culture, microplate-based in vitro hematotoxicity assay to evaluate lineage-specific (myeloid, erythroid, and megakaryocytic) hematotoxicity at different stages of differentiation. This assay has multiple advantages over the traditional CFU assay, including being suitable for high-throughput screening and flexible enough to allow inclusion of additional endpoints for mechanistic studies. Therefore, it is an extremely useful tool for scientists in pharmaceutical discovery and development. © 2018 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Thrombospondin-2 Expression During Retinal Vascular Development and Neovascularization.

PURPOSE: To determine thrombospondin-2 (TSP2) expression and its impact on postnatal retinal vascular development and retinal neovascularization. METHODS: The TSP2-deficient (TSP2(-/-)) mice and a line of TSP2 reporter mice were used to assess the expression of TSP2 during postnatal retinal vascular development and neovascularization. The postnatal retinal vascularization was evaluated using immunostaining of wholemount retinas prepared at different postnatal days by collagen IV staining and/or TSP2 promoter driven green fluorescent protein (GFP) expression. The organization of astrocytes was evaluated by glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) staining. Retinal vascular densities were determined using trypsin digestion preparation of wholemount retinas at 3- and 6-weeks of age. Retinal neovascularization was assessed during the oxygen-induced ischemic retinopathy (OIR). Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) was assessed using laser-induced CNV. RESULTS: Using the TSP2-GFP reporter mice, we observed significant expression of TSP2 mRNA in retinas of postnatal day 5 (P5) mice, which increased by P7 and remained high up to P42. Similar results were observed in retinal wholemount preparations, and western blotting for GFP with the highest level of GFP was observed at P21. In contrast to high level of mRNA at P42, the GFP fluorescence or protein level was dramatically downregulated. The primary retinal vasculature developed at a faster rate in TSP2(-/-) mice compared with TSP2(+/+) mice up to P5. However, the developing retinal vasculature in TSP2(+/+) mice caught up with that of TSP2(-/-) mice after P7. No significant differences in retinal vascular density were observed at 3- or 6-weeks of age. TSP2(-/-) mice also exhibited a similar sensitivity to the hyperoxia-mediated vessel obliteration and similar level of neovascularization during OIR as TSP2(+/+) mice. Lack of TSP2 expression minimally affected laser-induced CNV compared with TSP2(+/+) mice. CONCLUSIONS: Lack of TSP2 expression was associated with enhanced retinal vascularization during early postnatal days but not at late postnatal times, and minimally affected retinal and CNV. However, the utility of TSP2 as a potential therapeutic target for inhibition of ocular neovascularization awaits further investigation.

Modulation of vascular cell function by bim expression.

Apoptosis of vascular cells, including pericytes and endothelial cells, contributes to disease pathogenesis in which vascular rarefaction plays a central role. Bim is a proapoptotic protein that modulates not only apoptosis but also cellular functions such as migration and extracellular matrix (ECM) protein expression. Endothelial cells and pericytes each make a unique contribution to vascular formation and function although the details require further delineation. Here we set out to determine the cell autonomous impact of Bim expression on retinal endothelial cell and pericyte function using cells prepared from Bim deficient (Bim(-/-)) mice. Bim(-/-) endothelial cells displayed an increased production of ECM proteins, proliferation, migration, adhesion, and VEGF expression but, a decreased eNOS expression and nitric oxide production. In contrast, pericyte proliferation decreased in the absence of Bim while migration, adhesion, and VEGF expression were increased. In addition, we demonstrated that the coculturing of either wild-type or Bim(-/-) endothelial cells with Bim(-/-) pericytes diminished their capillary morphogenesis. Thus, our data further emphasizes the importance of vascular cell autonomous regulatory mechanisms in modulation of vascular function.

Cyp1B1 expression promotes angiogenesis by suppressing NF-κB activity.

Nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) is a master regulator of genes that control a large number of cellular processes, including angiogenesis and inflammation. We recently demonstrated that cytochrome P-450 1B1 (Cyp1B1) deficiency in endothelial cells (EC) and pericytes (PC) results in increased oxidative stress, alterations in migration, attenuation of capillary morphogenesis, sustained activation of NF-κB, and increased expression of thrombospondin-2 (TSP2), an endogenous inhibitor of angiogenesis. On the basis of a growing body of evidence that phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) and pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate (PDTC) function as antioxidants and suppressors of NF-κB activation, we investigated their potential ability to restore a normal phenotype in Cyp1B1-deficient (cyp1b1(-/-)) vascular cells. PEITC and PDTC inhibited NF-κB activity and expression in cyp1b1(-/-) EC and PC. We also observed restoration of migration and capillary morphogenesis of cyp1b1(-/-) EC and decreased cellular oxidative stress in cyp1b1(-/-) EC and PC without restoration to normal TSP2 levels. In addition, expression of a dominant-negative inhibitor κBα, a suppressor of NF-κB activation, decreased NF-κB activity without affecting TSP2 expression in these cells. In contrast, knockdown of TSP2 expression resulted in attenuation of NF-κB activity in cyp1b1(-/-) vascular cells. Furthermore, expression of TSP2 in wild-type (cyp1b1(+/+)) cells resulted in increased NF-κB activity. Together, our results demonstrate an important role for TSP2 in modulation of NF-κB activity and attenuation of angiogenesis. Thus Cyp1B1 expression in vascular cells plays an important role in the regulation of vascular homeostasis through modulation of the cellular reductive state, TSP2 expression, and NF-κB activation.

Inflammatory cytokine-specific alterations in retinal endothelial cell function.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is recognized as a chronic low-grade inflammatory disease. Retinal microvascular cell dysfunction and loss play an important role in the pathogenesis of DR. However, the basic mechanisms underlying the development and progression of DR are poorly understood. Many recent studies indicate that increased production of inflammatory factors either systemically and/or locally, is strongly associated with vascular dysfunction during diabetes. Here we sought to determine the specific impact of different inflammatory mediators on retinal endothelial cell (EC) function. Inflammatory mediators TNF-α and IL-1ß attenuated the migration and capillary morphogenesis of retinal EC. These dysfunctions were associated with an increased production of reactive oxygen species, expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase, and production of total nitrate/nitrite. Incubation of retinal EC with TNF-α and IL-1ß altered VE-cadherin localization, as well as the expression of other junctional proteins. In addition, TNF-α and IL-1ß also altered the production of various ECM proteins including osteopontin, collagen IV, and tenascin-C. Mechanistically, these changes were concomitant with the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways. In contrast, incubation of retinal EC with MCP-1 minimally affected their migratory, junctional, and ECM properties. Together our results indicate that the presence of inflammatory mediators in diabetes may have specific and significant impact on vascular cell function, and contribute to the pathogenesis of DR.

Lack of Cyp1b1 promotes the proliferative and migratory phenotype of perivascular supporting cells.

Perivascular supporting cells, including pericytes and smooth muscle cells (PC/SMC), have an integral role during angiogenesis and control vascular remodeling, maturation, and stabilization of neoteric vessels. We recently showed that a Cyp1B1 deficiency in mice results in the attenuation of angiogenesis in vivo and the pro-angiogenic activity of endothelial cells in vitro. However, the contribution of PC/SMC, and more specifically the cell autonomous effects of Cyp1B1 in these processes, needs further investigation. Here we demonstrate that PC constitutively expressed Cyp1B1, and that a deficiency in Cyp1B1 was associated with enhanced proliferation, and decreased apoptosis. Mechanistically, the lack of Cyp1B1 was associated with increased oxidative stress and sustained NF-κB activation, which was reversed by the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine. These changes were also concomitant with alterations in PC migration, adhesion, and expression of various extracellular matrix proteins, including thrombospondin-2. Cyp1B1-deficient PC also expressed decreased levels of vascular endothelial growth factor. Together, our results suggest an important role for Cyp1B1 expression in the regulation of PC proliferation, migration, and survival through modulation of the intracellular oxidative state and NF-κB expression and/or activity. Thus, a lack of Cyp1B1 in PC may have a significant role in vascular dysfunction and integrity, contributing to the attenuation of angiogenesis.

Caspase-14: a novel caspase in the retina with a potential role in diabetic retinopathy.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate caspase-14 expression in the retina under normal and diabetic conditions, and to determine whether caspase-14 contributes to retinal microvascular cell death under high glucose conditions. METHODS: Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis were used to evaluate caspase-14 expression in retinal cells, including pericytes (PCs), endothelial cells (ECs), astrocytes (ACs), choroidal ECs, and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cells. We also determined caspase-14 expression in the retinas of human subjects with or without diabetic retinopathy (DR) and in experimental diabetic mice. Retinal ECs and PCs were infected with adenoviruses expressing human caspase-14 or green fluorescent protein. Caspase-14 expression was also assessed in retinal vascular cells cultured under high glucose conditions. The number of apoptotic cells was determined with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling staining and confirmed by determining the levels of cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 and caspase-3. RESULTS: Our experiments demonstrated that retinal ECs, PCs, ACs, choroidal ECs, and RPE cells expressed caspase-14, and DR was associated with upregulation and/or activation of caspase-14 particularly in retinal vasculature. High glucose induced marked elevation of the caspase-14 level in retinal vascular cells. There was a significant increase in the apoptosis rate and the levels of cleaved poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 and caspase-3 in retinal ECs and PCs overexpressing caspase-14. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that caspase-14 might play a significant role in the pathogenesis of DR by accelerating retinal PC and EC death. Further investigations are required to elaborate the underlying mechanisms.